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Joseph Haydn was appointed vice-Kapellmeister at Esterhazy
by Prince Paul Esterhazy in 1761 which began a thirty year association
which Barrett-Ayres (1974, p.246) describes as, a relationship between
master and man which is quite unique in the history of music; a relationship
which proved beneficial to both parties and left the world a richer legacy
of good music.
At the time of his appointment the transition from the
baroque era through the transitional forms of the Pre-Classical period
to the newly emerging classical style was gathering momentum. The development
of sonata form, which was to become the principal factor in the ascendancy
of instrume ntal music during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
was in its infancy (Grove, Vol.. 17, p. 500). This essay will begin by
firstly discussing briefly the origins of both the string quartet and
sonata form; secondly, their stage of development upon Haydn’s appointment
at Esterhazy; and finally, it will focus on the string quartets of Joseph
Haydn, composed during his long employment at Esterhazy, and discuss their
contribution to the string quartet genre and the development of sonata
form.
From the point of view of structure there can be no doubt
that the two-part binary form, which existed in the dances of the early
suite, became the basis for the sonata form of the eighteenth century.
Colles (1959, p.63) suggests that sonata form began to take shape in the
harpsichord sonatas of C.P.E. Bach. Example 1 shows the tonal plan of
a typical baroque binary movement compared to a movement from a C.P.E.
Bach Harpsichord sonata written around 1744. The new sonata principal
differs from the baroque style in two main areas: firstly, a typical baroque
movement is based on one single main idea and is governed by a single
texture, whereas a movement written in the new Classical style would normally
consist of several contrasting ideas which are developed dramatically
to provide tension and resolution; secondly, the Baroque movement would
normally feature a linear bass line following a metrically orientated
rhythm, reinforced by the continuo, whilst the Classical movement would
dispense with the continuo and the bass would play a more harmonic role
(Grove, Vol.. 17, p.498).
Tovey (1963, p.521) emphasises the importance of basing
an analysis of a sonata form movement on tonal centres as opposed to themes,
“if the practice of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven be taken as a guide the
discoverable rules of sonata form are definite a s to the distribution
of keys, and utterly indefinite as to the number and distribution of themes
in these keys”. This premiss which is also expounded by Green (1979, p.218)
will be used throughout this essay.
A typical sonata-form movement, as in example 1, consists
of a two part tonal structure divided into three main sections. The first
part of the structure is called the ‘exposition’. The second part of the
structure comprises the remaining two sections, the ‘development’ and
the ‘recapitulation’ (Grove, Vol.. 17, p.497). The exposition may be conveniently
broken up into four further sections: firstly, the Primary key section
which expresses thematic material in the tonic key, which is then followed
by a second section which takes the form of a transitional passage, its
function is to deflect the listeners attention away from the tonic key
and prepare the arrival of the third section, w hich is called the Secondary
key section. This section comprises of material presented in a related
key, usually the dominant in the case of a major key, or the relative
major in the case of a minor key. Finally, the exposition is usually rounded
off with a closing cadential section which reaffirms the new key. The
development section is used by the composer to introduce tension into
the work by expanding on the material presented in the exposition, usually
in a number of related key centres. In the initial stages of sonata form
evolvement many development sections began with a simple restatement of
the main theme in the dominant (Kohs, 1976, p.262). The purpose of the
final section, the recapitulation, is to unify the entire movement by
firmly restating all thematic material presented in the exposition in
the tonic tonal centre.
The origins of the string quartet may be traced to four
sources: firstly, the four-part sections called sonata a quattro from
the early eighteenth century Italian sinfonia; secondly, the French sonate
en quatuor and ouverture a quatre; thirdly, the pre-Classical forms such
as the divertimento, cassation, notturno and the serenade; and finally,
the quartet-symphonies of the Mannheim school from around 1745. These
works were usually written in an orchestral style which featured the predominant
melodic interest in the first violin part and frequent doubling between
the viola and the bass (Grove, Vol. 18 pp.277- 278). It is not until Haydn’s
Opus 9 quartets of 1769 that Goethe’s definition of the string quartet
as “a stimulating conv ersation between four intelligent people” (Barrett-
Ayres 1974, p.7) becomes applicable. Haydn considered that his true quartet
output began with the six quartets of Opus 9. Because of this statement,
plus the controversy that surrounds the authenticity of Opus 3, and also
the fact that some of the first 18 quartets were written originally for
various instrumental combination and were published, apparently without
Haydn’s authorisation, at a later date as quartets arrangements (Olleson,
1974, p.9), this essay will begin by examining Opus 9 which coincides
with Haydn’s first years at Esterhazy.
With Haydn’s
Opus 9 quartets (1769) all semblance to the orchestral style is absent
(Tovey, p.532). The overall structure takes on the standard four movement
scheme featuring two allegro outer movements enclosing a minuet and a
slow movement. The first movement is usually in sonata form and much more
emphasis is given to the development section of these movements which
now sometimes equal the length of the exposition (The New Oxford History
of Music, p.553). An interesting example, whilst not typical of the entire
series but appearing to point to Haydn’s historic Sun Quartets Opus 20,
occurs in Opus 9 No. 4 in D minor (Ex. 2). Haydn becomes more adventurous
with the lower strings which share the thematic material. At bar 1 the
viola shares the theme with the first violin, whilst bars 3 and 4 feature
a dialog between first violin an d lower strings (Olleson, 1974, p.15).
Haydn’s Opus 17 quartets were published in 1771. No. 4
in C minor features a number of interesting developments. An examination
of Score example 1 indicates that the opening movement is monothematic.
All thematic material for the entire movement originates in the first
eight bars, a technique that will become increasingly more common in Haydn’s
later works. The secondary key section at bar 20 is in the key of Eb major.
Here Haydn employs “one of his favourite formal devices: instead of a
new theme at this point we find a variant of the first theme” transposed
to the new key (Olleson, 1974, p.18). It is also apparent that Haydn has
shortened the recapitulation by 24 bars. Bars 9 to 19 of the transition
have been omitted, because their role of providing modulation to the second
subject is redundant in a monothematic movement, and Bars 20 to 32 which
contain secondary key group material are no longer needed, as the second
group material is derived from the first, therefore a recapitulation in
the tonic is a mere repeat of theme one. Extensive reworking of exposition
material when it is restated in the recapitulation is very characteristic
of Haydn, particularly in a monothematic movement such as this one. “Haydn
seems anxious not to over-work his one subject, as might happen if the
recapitulation exactly followed the lines of the exposition“ (Olleson,
1974, p.19). As if to compensate for the shortened recapitulation, Haydn
adds, for the first time, a coda (bar 120) constructed from the rising
third motif from the primary key section and the two bar closing phrase
which roun ds of the exposition and the recapitulation. Harmonically the
movement is also very interesting; a glance at the movement tonal plan
(Ex. 3) will reveal Haydn’s rather adventurous journey through a number
of key centres in the development section which begins at bar 54 in the
submediant key of Ab major. Bar 79 features the opening motive in first
species counterpoint, which is then followed at bar 86 by a false recapitulation.
Both these features became important characteristics of Haydn’s future
writing.
Tovey (1963, p.538) sums up the importance of Haydn’s
next set of six quartets, Opus 20 written in 1772, as follows: “with opus
20 the historical development of Haydn’s quartets reaches its goal; and
further progress is n ·ot progress in any historical sense, but simply
the difference between one masterpiece and the next”
Mozart also recognised the importance of this set and
was inspired to write a set of six quartets K.168-K.173 using Haydn’s
as a model. Later it will be seen that Haydn was influenced in turn by
the younger Mozart (Crocker, 1966, p.393).
Kirkendale (1979, p. 141), commenting on the more serious
nature of these quartets, suggests that Haydn may have been reacting against
the accusations of ‘trifling’ which had been directed at his earlier quartets.
For example three of the quartets in this series feature a fugal final
movement (The New Oxford History of Music, p.555). But it is not only
in the fugues that the richer counter -point and more serious manner are
apparent, as now for the first time fugal writing appears as a normal
resource in the movements of sonata form (Tovey 1963, p.536; Edwards 1991,
p.230).
Opus 20 No.2 in C major provides a good illustration of
Haydn’s more serious tone and greater expressive range. The first movement
commences in triple counterpoint and “Haydn’s imagination has now awakened
to the tone of the cello as something more than a mere amenable bass to
the harmony” (Tovey, p.533), as the first statement of the theme is given
to the cello and second violin, whilst the viola is assigned the role
of the bass. (Score Example 2, opening bars) Bars 2 and 3 are interesting
as they feature the cello placed above the second violin. As the movement
progresses the fugal opening ope ¿ns out into a more harmonic style (bar
23) which Barrett-Ayres (1974, p.134) sums up in saying “By causing a
dualism of style, he adds a new dimension.” Example 4 also highlights
Haydn’s imaginative use of harmonic progressions, in particular the way
in which he approaches the cadence at the end of the secondary key section
(bars 37 to 44) through the tonal centres of G minor, Eb major, and then
to the dominant via a augmented sixth chord. The development which commences
at bar 48 in the dominant minor (Ex.4), a technique which Haydn continues
to utilise frequently throughout his career, features a running dialog
between cello and first violin (bars 48-60) which modulates through a
series of related keys (Ratner, 1980, p.117).
Nine years separate the quartets of Opus 20 from Haydn’s
Opus 33, the set of six written in 1781, usually referred to as the “Russian
Quartets”. Haydn describes this series in a letter to the influential
Swiss gen tleman J.C.Lavater as being written “in a new and special way”
(Barrett-Ayres, 1974, p.153). With the exception of the first quartet
Sonata form is used only in the first movements; the final movements see
a return to the lighter forms such as the rondo or theme and variations
(Barrett-Ayres 1974, p.155-156). Overall the quartets appear somewhat
lighter in style, which Olleson (1974, p.26) suggests is due mainly to
the distribution of important thematic material through all parts (Score
example 3, bars 65-71). The more independent nature, plus the assignment
of more thematic importance to the lower strings evident in Opus 20, is
now all but “taken for granted as the natural musical language” (Olleson,
1974, p.26). The development section from Opus 33 No.5 in G major (Score
example 3) demonstrates the principal of thematic elaboration that Haydn
now systematically employs. In this movement Haydn uses four distinctive
thematic elements upon which he constructs the entire sonata form movement.
This move ment is also interesting harmonically: firstly, Haydn steps
straight from the dominant seventh chord to the flattened submediant chord
to commence his coda at bar 272, this technique will become common place
in Haydn’s later works (Rosen 1971, p. 313); secondly, Haydn commences
the development section by restating his primary group theme in the tonic
minor before making an exhaustive exploration of numerous key centres
(Ex. 5).
Haydn dedicated his Opus 50 of 1787 to King Friedrich
Wilhelm II of Prussia who was a keen cellist, the florid nature of the
cello part in these works may be attributed to this fact (Barrett Ayres,
p. 247). With this set Haydn returns to a “more substantial tone, eloquent
and profound rather than violent” (Crocker 1966, p.393) and develops even
further his preoccupation with thematic elaboration and the preference
for a “monothematic structure” (The New Oxford History of Music, p.554).
“Monothematicism illustrates fully the importance of key centres in eighteenth
century sonata form, for if there is but one theme, an antithesis between
first and second group can only be achieved by contrasting tonal centres.”(Barrett-Ayres,
1974, p.202).
Barrett-Ayres (1974, p.202) suggests that a theme contai
ns a number of motives or ideas, which in a monothematic movement may
be transformed and developed in numerous ways, thereby creating a theme
which may be completely different from the original. “The first movement
of the quartet in Bb Opus 50, No.1 (Ex. 7) is built from almost nothing
at all: a repeated note in the cello and a six-note figure in the violin.
Everything in the exposition is restricted to these two small elements”
(Rosen, 1971, p.120). Sutcliffe (1992, p.67) makes two important comments
on this movement: firstly, he draws attention to the parallels between
the opening of this movement and the opening movement of Beethoven's first
quartet Opus 18, No.1 (Ex. 6) which “testifies to the impact that Haydn’s
movement must have had on him”; and secondly, he states that Opus 50,
No.1 shows the reciprocal influence that the younger Mozart had on Haydn.
He points out that this quartet exhibits “an entirely new system of tempo”
where he “halves the old eight-eight pace into barred C”. Previously,
Haydn would have defined the pulse as subdivisions of four in the bar,
whereas he now feels the pulse in either whole or half bar units.
The six ‘Tost Quartets’ of 1788, published as Opus 54
and 55, were written for the celebrated violin virtuoso Johann Tost. Described
by Barrett-Ayres (1974, p. 230) as a “continuation of the total experiment”,
they are, whilst not displaying any new developments, examples of Haydn’s
art at the peak of perfection. Haydn now writes monothematic sonata form
movements more frequently, false recapitulations occur, and fugato passages
during the development section are common. (The New Oxford History of
Music, p.562). The year 1790, with the death of Prince Nicolaus Esterhazy,
marks the end of Haydn’s association with the house of Esterhazy. It also
produced the six string quartets, Opus 64, representing the culmination
of 30 years of development in which Haydn’s contribution to the string
quartet genre and the development of sonata form was substantial. Opus
64 No.5, commonly called The Lark, is possibly the most popular among
Haydn’s entire quartet output (Keller 1986, p.164), and exhibits many
of these developments. The first theme of the opening movement (Score
example 4) beginning in staccato quavers at bar 1 then transforms into
a subordinate accompaniment on the entry of the soaring ‘Lark’ theme at
bar 9. The transition, entering at bar 21, contrasts the lyrical ‘Lark’
theme by adding an element of chromaticism before the arrival at bar 36
of the syncopated first theme in the second key area. A descending triplet
passage,followed by an ascending chromatic passage at bar 50, makes up
the second theme before a four bar codetta commencing at bar 56 rounds
out the exposition. The development, commencing at bar 60 in G major (Ex.
8), begins with material from the first key group. Bars 60-72 are derived
from the first and second themes from this group, then at bar 73 Haydn
introduces a descending triplet motif in the viola and cello, taken from
theme 2 from his second group, before returning momentarily to the “Lark”
theme at bar 85. The syncopation at bar 89, derived from theme 1 of the
second group, opens out into a driving closing passage constructed from
the descending triplets of group 2, and the staccato opening passage of
group one. The recapitulation, commencing at bar 105, is typical of Haydn’s
dual thematic movements except that at bar 142 he restates the ‘Lark’
theme before bringing back the syncopated theme from group two. Barrett-Ayres
(1974, p.260-261) draws attention to two important elements present in
this movement: firstly, the “juxtaposition of diatonic and chromatic melody”
which exists between the diatonic simplicity of the ‘Lark’ theme (bars
9-21) and the tense chromaticism of the transition and the first of the
second group themes (bars 22-49); secondly, the greater use of the German
sixth chord which occur at bars 48, 87, 137, and 167.
During Haydn’s years at Esterhazy his concept of musical
art, that of conflict and resolution firmly based within the tonal system
and of economy of material applied with clarity and balance, was formed.
These concepts are most noticeable in the 43 quartets (the 7 quartet arrangements
of the “Seven Last Words’ have been omitted) composed during this period;
for in the string quartet Haydn appears to have found the ideal vehicle
through which to express his conceptions. His contributions to the development
of sonata form, which include motivic development, introduction of the
coda, thematic transformation, equality of part writing, the reconciliation
of both contrapuntal and homophonic textures, the growth in importance
of both the second theme group and the development section, and the expansion
of harmonic resource through the contrast of tonal centres, were to have
a profou nd influence on all who were to follow.
Bibliography
Barrett-Ayres, Reginald, 1974, Joseph Haydn and the String
Quartet, Barrie & Jenkins, London.
Beethoven, Ludwig, Complete String Quartets, Dover Publications Inc., New
York
Colles, H., C., 1959, The Growth of Music, Third Ed., Revised Bloom, Oxford
University Press, London.
Crocker, Richard, 1966, A History of Musical Style, Dover Pub. Inc., New
York.
Edwards, George, 1991, “The Nonsense of an Ending: Closure in Haydn’s String
Quartets”, The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 75, No. 3.
Green, Douglass M., 1979, Form in Tonal Music, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Inc., Fort Worth.
Keller, Hans, 1986, The Great Haydn Quartets: Their Interpretation, J.M.
Dent & Sons Ltd., London.
Kirby,F.,E., 1979, Music in the Classic Period, Schirmer Books, New York.
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Kohs, Ellis, B., 1976, Musical Form, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
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Oleson, Philip, 1974, The Rise of the String Quartet, The Open University
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Rosen, Charles, 1971, The Classical Style, Faber and Faber, London. Ratner,
Leonard, 1980, Classic Music, Schirmer Books, New York.
Scholes, Percy, 1923, The Listener’s History of Music, Oxford University
Press, London.
Sutcliffe, W., 1992, Haydn: String Quartets, Op.50, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge. The New Oxford History of Music, Vol. VII, 1973, Ed. Egon
Wellesz & Frederich Sternfeld, Oxford University Press, London.
Tovey, Donald, 1963, in Cobbett’s Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, ed.
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 billty@guitardownunder.com
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